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Environmental Science Set 6 of 9
Land & Water
Presentation MEDIA Version 1.1 | BIOZONE International © 2009, 2013
Contents ‣ 1) The Green Revolution
‣ 7) Cities
‣ 2) World Food Crops
‣ 8) Transportation
‣ 3) Farming Practices
‣ 9) Environmental Remediation
Industrialized vs traditional
‣ 10) Global Economics
Sustainable agriculture
‣ 11) Marine Water
‣ 4) Pest Control
Impact of fishing
Integrated pest management
Fisheries management
Biological Control
Sustainable yields
Seed Banks
‣ 5) Forest Management ‣ 6) National Parks Click on the hyperlink title you wish to view
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The Green Revolution
‣ Since the 1950s, most increases in global food production have come from increased yields per unit area of cropland.
This green revolution has been brought about through the development of high yielding crop varieties and the application of fertilizers, pesticides, and water. The second green revolution has been taking place since 1967 with the introduction of fast growing dwarf varieties.
The first high input green revolution increased crop yields in most developed countries between 1950 and 1970
Major international agricultural research centers and seed banks
First green revolution (developed countries)
Second green revolution (developing countries)
Cereal Crop Production ‣ The second green revolution is occurring in response to the use of fast growing, high yielding varieties of rice, corn, and wheat, specially bred for the tropical and subtropical climates.
Per capita grain production
Total world grain production
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Global Wheat Production ‣ Wheat (Triticum spp.) is the most important world cereal crop and is extensively grown in temperate regions.
‣ Key areas for wheat production are the prairies of Canada and the USA, Europe, and Russia (the former Soviet Union wheat belt).
World production of wheat
Global Maize Production ‣ The USA corn belt produces nearly half the world s maize (Zea mays). Some is exported, but 85% is used within the USA as animal feed (as grain and silage). It is also a major cereal crop in Africa and second only to rice in importance in Asia.
‣ Maize is poor in the essential amino acids tryptophan and lysine.
World production of maize
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Maize ‣ Maize grows well where temperature and light intensity are high, and its adaptations include:
An additional (C4) pathway for photosynthesis that allows the plant to fix CO2 (even at low levels) as a 4C compound, which is used to boost CO2 levels for the regular C3 pathway. As a result, in warmer regions, C4 plants can achieve very high photosynthetic rates. Maize roots are shallow, so the plants often have small aerial roots at the base of the stem to increase their ability to withstand buffeting by wind.
Global Rice Production ‣ Rice (Oryza sativa) is the basic food crop of monsoon Asia, and is highly nutritious. Both paddy and indica (upland) varieties are grown.
‣ Most rice is grown in China, mainly for internal consumption. Other major producers include India, Pakistan, Japan, Thailand, and Vietnam.
World production of rice
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Rice ‣ Most of the rice in SE Asia is
grown partly submerged in paddy fields. Its adaptations include: The stem has large air spaces running the length of the stem which allows oxygen to penetrate through the submerged roots. Shallow roots allow access to the oxygen that diffuses into the surface layer of waterlogged soil. When oxygen levels fall too low, the root cells respire anaerobically, producing ethanol. The root cells have a high tolerance to this normally toxic product.
Rice is a labor intensive crop when planting by hand (top) or by machine (bottom)
Global Sorghum Production ‣ Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) is a nutritious grain used as a human foodstuff in Asia and Africa. In other regions it is used mainly as animal feed and as an industrial raw material (for oil, starch, and fiber).
‣ Sorghum is widely cultivated in Africa, the middle East to India and Myanmar, and parts of Australia, the Americas, and Southern Europe.
World production of sorghum
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Sorghum ‣ Sorghum is able to grow well in the very hot, dry regions of tropical Africa and central India. Its adaptations include: The presence of special motor cells on the underside of the leaf that cause the leaf to roll inwards in dry conditions. This traps moist air in the rolled leaf and reduces water loss. A thick waxy cuticle and a reduced number of sunken stomata prevent evaporative water loss through the leaf surface. A dense root system that is efficient at extracting water from the soil.
Sorghum is well suited to tropical regions. Here workers (top) and an agriculturist (lower) inspect a crop.
New Crop Developments 1 ‣ Wheat has a selection of cultivars for particular nutritional
qualities or high yield in local conditions. Research focuses on breeding hardy, disease resistant, and high yielding varieties.
‣ Maize has high lysine hybrid varieties with better disease
resistance and higher yields. Most countries have cultivars suited to local conditions.
Wheat
Maize
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New Crop Developments 2 ‣ Rice has fast growing, disease resistant, high yielding cultivars which crop up to three times a season. Genetic engineering to increase the tolerance to high salinity is extending the range for cultivation.
‣ Sorghum has high-yielding, low-growing and uniformly ripening new hybrids. Further breeding aims to improve grain quality and combine high yield properties with the disease resistance of the African wild stocks.
Indica (upland) rice
Sorghum
Agricultural Ecosystems ‣ Agricultural ecosystems are highly modified ecosystems, which attempt to maximize the production of crop biomass by adding water and fertilizers. The ecological efficiency of such systems is generally low compared with that of natural ecosystems (e.g. swamps, estuaries).
‣ Agricultural ecosystems may be: industrialized or intensive (high energy input) systems traditional (low energy input) systems
‣ Industrialized farming practices are generally non-sustainable because of their high energy inputs. Traditional farming relies more on sustainable land use practices.
Monoculture of lettuce in an intensive farm
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Intensive Agriculture ‣ Intensive (industrialized) agriculture uses large amounts of fossil fuel energy, water, fertilizers, and pesticides to increase the net production (crop yield).
Plowing the land in front of an industrial plant, CA, USA
Advantages of Intensive Agriculture ‣ Intensive crop production has a number of important advantages: Maximum yield from minimum land use; world grain production has almost tripled in the last 50 years. Yields increase more quickly and effectively than with alternatives. Mechanization reduces labor costs and leads to efficiencies of scale. Per capita production has increased, reducing global hunger. The cost of food has declined, and more food is now traded globally. Seeding (top) and planting (below): two practices once exclusively done by hand
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Disadvantages of Intensive Agriculture ‣ Despite its benefits, intensive crop production has a number of drawbacks: Increases in yields may not be sustainable (per capita production is now decreasing) Pests and diseases spread rapidly in monocultures. Pesticide use is escalating yet its effectiveness is decreasing. Pesticides and fertilizers are energy expensive. Fertilizer use is increasing but soil and water quality continue to decline. Poor countries are reliant financially on outside assistance. Heavy machinery is expensive to purchase, operate, and maintain.
Intensive agriculture uses high inputs of energy to achieve high yields
Crop Harvest ‣ Crop harvesting interrupts normal nutrient cycles and removes nutrients from the land. If the soil is left unreplenished it becomes nutrient deficient. The addition of fertilizers restores soil fertility. Organic fertilizers (carbon based) include animal manures, green manure, and compost. Inorganic fertilizers contain simple inorganic chemicals immediately available to the plant.
‣ Erosion of topsoil occurs when soil is laid bare after harvest, with the loss of habitat for important soil organisms. Harvesting strips biomass, and its associated nutrients, from the land
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Fertilizers ‣ Nutrients lost through cropping can be replaced by the addition of fertilizers: materials that supply nutrients to plants.
‣ Plants require a variety of minerals which are normally obtained from the soil. Minerals required in large amounts are called macronutrients (e.g. phosphorus, nitrogen, sulfur). Those needed in small amounts are called trace elements or micronutrients.
Harvesting maize
‣ The use of fertilizers contributed to the world s first green revolution, which greatly increased crop yields between 1950 and 1970. Fertilizer application
Soil Nutrition
Nitrogen fixation by lightning
Crop plant
Commercial inorganic fertilizer
Urine and feces
Dead organic matter
Organic fertilizers Application to land
Nutrient removal with harvest
e.g. animal manure and compost Photo; Andrew Dunn
Supply of available plant nutrients in soil e.g. nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, magnesium Nitrogen fixation by bacteria e.g. Rhizobium and Azotobacter: reduction of nitrogen gas and its incorporation into organic compounds.
Absorption of nutrient by roots
Weathering of rock: weathering processes make and release soluble ions
Nutrient losses by bacterial processes: conversion of nitrates to nitrogen gas by anaerobic denitrifying bacteria. Nutrient lost due to runoff and leaching: nutrients dissolved in rainwater are lost as runoff into streams, or into groundwater. The resulting nutrient buildup in rivers and lakes is called eutrophication.
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Global Soil Degradation ‣ Especially in the tropics, deforestation, overgrazing, overcultivation, and poor irrigation practices can lead to desertification and salinization.
Major causes of worldwide soil degradation Overgrazing
35%
Deforestation
30%
Other agricultural activities
27%
Other causes Chemical contamination: In the United States, most farmers are dependent on heavy use of pesticides to maximize production.
Desertification: In Mali, the Sahara desert has expanded more that 650 km south in less than 20 years
8%
Irrigation of farmland and deforestation in western and south eastern Australia have cause widespread salinization.
Soil Degradation Heavy metalsand PCBs
Industrial and vehicle emissions
Desertification
Soil erosion Chemical dump Pesticides
Soil exhaustion
Salinization Salt pan Rising water table through irrigation
Toxic seepage Leaching
Bedrock with high salt content
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Chemical Contamination ‣ Intensive agricultural practices, which call for high inputs of herbicides, pesticides, and fertilizers, can lead to a gradual deterioration of soil quality. Chemicals accumulate in the soil and enter ground water.
‣ The problem of disposing of
Orchard
unwanted agrichemicals has reached major proportions in developed countries. Chemical dumps may be unstable: storage vessels deteriorate and their contents escape to enter ground and surface waters. Rice plantation Intensive agricultural systems often rely on regular, heavy applications of agrichemicals.
Desertification ‣ Desertification is a complex
process involving multiple natural and human-related causes. In desertification, the productive potential of arid and semi-arid lands falls by 10% or more, and topsoil is lost or degraded. Desertification results mainly from a combination of natural climate changes causing prolonged drought and unsustainable human activities, including overgrazing and deforestation. Desertification may lead to the formation of a desert or the encroachment of an existing desert onto formerly arable land. Overgrazing on marginal lands (top) can extend desert zones (lower)
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Artificial Ecosystems ‣ Humans can provide conditions that can maximize crop yield by: Providing enclosures, e.g tunnel houses and glasshouses. Regulating the abiotic factors important for growth, e.g. temperature, light intensity, and carbon dioxide concentration.
The effect of carbon dioxide concentration on plant growth
No growth
Enriched levels
Toxic
Hydroponics ‣ Hydroponics is a technology for
growing plants in nutrient solutions with or without the use of an artificial soil medium, such as sand or vermiculite, to provide support. Like all controlled-environment agriculture, it is expensive to establish and operate, but it is highly productive, conservative of water and land, and protective of the environment.
‣ Hydroponic culture has been
practised for centuries but it has been used on a commercial basis only in recent decades.
Hydroponics has been adapted to many diverse situations, including agriculture in Antarctica (above), in space, and in non-arable regions such as deserts and coastal area.
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Biosphere II ‣ The Biosphere 2 Center (B2C) in Arizona is a controlled mini-world
housing seven wilderness ecosystems, including a rainforest and an ocean, as well as a human habitat. Built by Space Biosphere Ventures, eight people were sealed inside it during 1991-92. All food was grown inside the facility and eventually oxygen was added to the air as the only outside input other than energy. In 1996 it was acquired by Columbia University as a research facility for examining how Earth s biosphere will change as carbon dioxide and other substances build up in the atmosphere.
The Impact of Farming ‣ Farming can have a negative impact on the natural biodiversity of a region (e.g. in Britain).
The active management of agricultural areas for the purpose of conservation is becoming increasingly important. For example, hedgerow legislation in Britain incorporates policies to increase woodland cover and schemes to promote environmentally sensitive farming practices.
Farmland, Shropshire
Hedgerow running beside road
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The Hedgerow Issue ‣ The conversion of many traditional, mixed farms, which required hedgerows to contain livestock, have been converted to arable farms with large fields to accommodate modern machinery. In Britain, this conversion has resulted in the loss of thousands of kilometers of hedgerows each year.
‣ Hedgerows are ecologically important because they increase the diversity of wildlife by:
Providing food and habitats for birds and other animals. Providing habitats for predators of pest species. Acting as corridors for wildlife to move along.
Traditional Farming ‣ Traditional farming, such as that practised by the Amish people of Pennsylvania, USA, uses low-input agricultural methods similar to those used in modern organic farming.
‣ Currently, low input agriculture occurs on less than 1% of the world s cropland (0.2% in the USA, but 6-10% in parts of Europe), but this type of farming is growing rapidly.
Amish farm, USA
‣ Traditional farming practices are sustainable in the long term and improve soil health and fertility.
Plowing rice field, Bangladesh
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Sustainable Agriculture ‣ The components of sustainable, low input agriculture are applicable to any type of cropping or harvesting system.
More
Less
High yield polyculture
Soil erosion
Organic fertilizers
Salinization
Biological pest control
Aquifer depletion
Integrated pest management
Overgrazing and overfishing
Irrigation efficiency
Loss of biodiversity
Perennial crops Crop rotation Use of more water-efficient crops
Loss of prime cropland Food waste Population growth
Soil conservation
Poverty
Subsidies for more sustainable farming and fishing
Subsidies for unsustainable farming and fishing
Advantages of Organic Farming ‣ The advantages of organic farming include:
Farmers can still make use of new high yielding crop varieties (right). Produce is pesticide free and produced sustainably. Crop type is more closely matched to the appropriate season and soil. It increases crop diversity and disrupts disease and pest cycles. It improves soil quality and structure, reducing nutrient and water loss.
Traditional haymaking, Ireland
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Disadvantages of Organic Farming ‣ The disadvantages of organic farming include:
Yields are lower and more land is required for the same yield.
Organic produce
Produce may be more expensive to buy, of reduced quality and with a shorter shelf life. Consumer choice may be restricted if out of season. There may be considerable bacterial contamination of produce due to high use of manures.
Muck spreading
Crop Rotation ‣ Crop rotation is a farm practice where crops with different nutrient demands are cultivated in succession on the same ground in successive years.
‣ Its purpose is to maintain soil fertility
Crop of soybeans. Legumes fix atmospheric nitrogen and restore soil nitrogen.
and reduce pest infestation. This avoids the need for chemical pesticides.
‣ A typical rotation is of three to six years. Legumes (e.g. clover, beans) are important in the rotation as they restore nitrogen to the soil. These alternate with root and cereal crops. Barley and other cereal crops are commonly part of a rotation
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Conservation Tillage ‣ Conservation tillage describes the practice of leaving crop residue in place and mixing it into the surface layers of the soil. Conservation tillage improves the soil structure through aeration and returns nutrients to the soil. It is best suited to crop rotations where the crop residue changes seasonally. In continuous cropping systems, conservation tillage leaves the same type of residue in the soil all year round, and this may harbor pests and disease.
Tilling prepares the land for crop sowing, in this case, potatoes
Integrated Pest Management ‣ Integrated pest management (IPM) describes pest control practices where each crop and its pests are evaluated as part of an ecological system. A program is developed that includes crop management (e.g. intercropping), and biological and chemical controls. The aim is not to eradicate pest populations, but to reduce crop damage to an economically tolerable level.
‣ An increasing number of pest
control experts and farmers believe IPM is the best way to control crop pests.
Intercropping: peas and corn
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Stages in IPM ‣ IPM involves several phases. Crop management and monitoring of pest levels are ongoing. When crop damage becomes unacceptable, farmers implement the following control measures in sequence and with the proper timing.
Hand weeding
Stage 1: Cultivation controls, such as hand weeding and vacuuming crops to remove insect pests.
Stage 3: Targeted pesticide use (chemical controls), mostly based on natural insecticides. Different chemicals are used to slow the development of resistance.
Cereal Research Centre, AAFC
Stage 2: Biological controls, such as pheromone traps, and natural predators, parasites, and disease organisms.
Pheromone trap
Biological Pest Control ‣ Biological control (biocontrol) is a management tool for controlling pests using parasites, predators, disease organisms.
‣ Control agents with a botanical or ‣ Biological control is an important part
Ladybirds are voracious predators of aphids
of IPM but it is not risk free. Some biocontrol agents may even become pests themselves. The cane toad (right) was introduced to Australia to control gray cane beetle and is now a major threat to native wildlife.
Cane toad
Photo: Ian Smith
microbial origin (e.g. Bt toxin) are classified as biopesticides.
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Biocontrol of Whitefly ‣ Adult whitefly resemble tiny moths. The young appear as scales on the undersides of many glasshouse crops where they suck the sap.
‣ Two biocontrol agents are in common use: the ladybird Delphastus, which feeds on eggs and larvae, and the parasitic wasp Encarsia.
‣ Both adult and larval Delphastus feed on whitefly; individuals may consume 150 whitefly eggs a day.
Ladybird (Delphastus)
Photos: Dr John Dale, Defenders Ltd
Controls
Whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum)
Biocontrol of Prickly Pear ‣ Prickly pear cactus (Opuntia stricta) was introduced to Australia as an ornamental plant in the 1800s. It dispersed rapidly to cover an estimated 250,000 km2 by 1925, much of it so densely that the land could not be used.
‣ The caterpillar of the moth Cactoblastis cactorum is a natural enemy of the
Photo: Dept of Environment, Queensland
prickly pear cactus and, as a biocontrol agent, it succeeded in clearing the 250,000 km2 of prickly pear cactus over several years.
Controls
Cactoblastis cactorum
Prickly pear cactus (Opuntia stricta)
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Biocontrol of Scotch Thistle ‣ The scotch thistle (Onopordum acanthium) was accidentally introduced into Australia from Europe. The seeds survive in soil for more than 20 years and are distributed by livestock which have spread this weed across 1 million hectares of Australian farmland.
Photos: Dept of Environment, Queensland
The biocontrol program, launched in 1987, involves three established weevil species, each of which attacks a different part of the thistle: flower head, stem, or rosettes. This multi-pronged approach offers effective control.
Controls
Adult thistle weevil (Larinus latus)
Scotch thistle
European Rabbit Control ‣ The European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) has reached plague proportions in parts of Australia and New Zealand. Early attempts at biological control involved the Myxoma pox virus (introduced in the 1950s). This was ineffective in the long term. Calicivirus (the infective agent for Rabbit Hemorrhagic Disease or RHD) escaped from quarantine in Australia in 1995 and then spread both naturally and with assistance. It was introduced illegally into New Zealand in 1997, although at the wrong season for maximum effect.
Like all viruses, Calicivirus attenuates (loses virulence) in the field. The efficacy of control is variable and depends on the age structure of the infected population.
Controls?
Calicivirus
European rabbit
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Effects of Biocontrol
‣ The European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) was successfully introduced into Britain by the Normans for their meat and fur.
‣ By the 1950s, they were considered a pest. The introduction of the Myxoma virus killed 99% of Britain s rabbit population. The cascade effects of this event are still evident today. 1980s-1990s Longer grasses and shrubs invade and predominate
Myxomatosis epidemic
99% mortality
rabbit numbers remain low
Grazing pressure maintains grassland, no colonization by shrubs. Wildflower and herb species benefit.
Grazing pressure removed Predators increase due to high levels of available carrion
Sporadic outbreaks of myxomatosis:
1950s High rabbit numbers (60-100 million)
Numbers of hares increase
Rabbit numbers low Vole populations increase Foxes prey switch to voles Serious decline in the abundance of wild thyme Serious decline in certain Myrmica species of ant
Local extinction of large blue butterfly
The butterfly s life cycle depends on both thyme and Myrmica
The Cane Toad ‣ The introduction of the cane toad
(Bufo marinus) to control the gray cane beetle (Dermolepida albohirtum) in Australia was spectacularly unsuccessful and the beetle continues to be a pest of sugar cane crops in Northern Australia.
Gray cane beetle, Dermolepida albohirtum
The cane toads have a voracious appetite for a wide variety of prey and compete with native species for food and habitat. In the absence of natural predators and parasites, cane toad populations have reached ten times the densities found in Venezuela.
Cane toad, Bufo marinus
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Managing Woodlands ‣ The United Kingdom was once
Currently, 12% of the land area of the UK is covered by forest or other wooded areas but more than 80% of all forests are available for wood supply, with the remainder protected for conservation reasons.
Photo: David Craig www.strum.co.uk
largely covered with woodland, but over many centuries it was cleared to meet the needs of a growing population.
Coppice remnant
Careful management has made it possible to make use of the forest resource in a sustainable manner without destroying the particular features of the ecosystem. Many of the UK s woodland trees show signs of long term human management
Change in Forest Cover
UK Forests
% Cover
‣ With careful management, the
percentage of forest covering the United Kingdom has increased significantly over the last hundred years.
Year 1%
8%
2%
8% 30%
51%
Percentage forest type U.K.
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North American Forests ‣ In the United States alone there are 749 million acres of forest.
Of this 67.5% is timberland (potentially able to be logged) 7% is reserve land 25.5% are non commercial forest types
Deciduous forest
Coniferous forest
Desert
Rainforest
Mediterranean Grassland
Alpine Tundra
Forest Products ‣ Removal of timber from both private and national forest in the U.S. has remained steady since the middle of the last decade. Extra timber requirements are made up of imported material.
Sawlogs
Veneer logs
Pulp
Other products
16.0 14.0
Billion cubic feet
12.0 10.0 8.0
4.0 2.0 0.0 1952
1962
1976
1986
1996
2001
Data source: US Dept Agriculture
6.0
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Different Logging Methods ‣ Different logging methods have different effects on the structure of a forest ecosystem. The two common methods used are: Clear-felling (or clear-cutting) exposes soil to to erosion and results in less diverse regrowth. Selective logging has many variations, including a focus on particular species or thinning of small trees. Types of selective logging include harvesting: Single scattered trees Trees above a specified girth Selected groups of trees
Clear Cutting
‣ A selection of mature forest is selected for removal based on tree height, girth, or species.
‣ During clear cutting, the understorey is destroyed and a new forest of economically desirable trees may be planted. The trees may be of a single species and may even be clones
A mature plantation forest is selected for harvesting
All the trees are removed
Seedlings of the same species are replanted
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Selective Logging ‣ Trees are selected for removal from a mature forest based on their height, girth, or species.
‣ These trees are felled individually and directed to fall in such a way as to minimize the damage to the surrounding younger trees. Usually, the trees are replaced with seedlings of the same species
Mature trees are preselected for harvesting
The trees are removed with minimal disturbance
Continual regeneration of young seedlings provides a balance of tree ages that mirrors the natural age structure
Coppicing ‣ Coppicing is the ancient practice of harvesting wood for weaving, thatching, firewood, or for making charcoal. A selection of deciduous trees are coppiced (cut close to the ground) leaving stumps known as stools. Each stool subsequently regrows as many stems and it is these stems that provide the wood for harvesting in the future.
A mature deciduous forest is selected
Many stems regrow from each stool
The trees are coppiced
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Strip Cutting ‣ Strip cutting is a variation of clear cutting. Trees are cut down in strips narrow enough for forest on either side to reclaim the cleared land. After reclamation (3-5 years) the next strip is cut. A strip will not be cut again for another 20 - 30 years.
Re-established forest
Forest 3-5 years after cutting
Forest 6-10 years after cutting
Newly cut
Uncut forest
Old Growth Forests ‣ Old growth forests are climax communities that have remained undisturbed by large scale natural events (e.g. fire) or human interference for hundreds of years.
‣ Old growth forests are ecologically
Photo: COR
significant because of their high and often unique biodiversity.
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Commercial Plantations ‣ Commercial plantations are specifically planted and grown for the production of timber and timber based products.
‣ They consist of a tree monoculture that is fast growing and produces straight, tall trunks ideal for logging and milling.
‣ Pinus radiata (monterey or radiata Photo: CA
pine) is popular as a commercial timber tree as it is fast growing, produces strong general purpose timber, and is ready for logging just twenty years after planting.
Pinus radiata is the leading commercial timber tree in many countries. The Kaingaroa Forest in New Zealand is the Southern Hemisphere s largest planted forest, covering 2,900 km2
Forest Fires ‣ Forest fires are a natural forest development and may naturally occur as a result of lightning strikes or the concentration of heat on dry tinder.
‣ Depending on the situation, fire services may actively try to extinguish these fires or contain them while they burn out naturally.
‣ In some situations, forestry or fire
Photo: CA
services start controlled burns to remove dry tinder and material that could lead to potentially uncontrollable fires in the future.
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The Fire Cycle 4 The build up of material can
eventually lead to small fires quickly forming wildfires, which can devastate large tracts of forest.
WILDFIRE
3 Prevention of natural forest fires causes flammable material to build up in the forest.
1 In natural unmodified environments, fires tend to be brief and small. They burn out relatively quickly, removing material from the surface.
2 Surface fires provide important services including removal of dead material, aggressive weed species, and pests. They also stimulate new growth and promote the germination of some seeds.
Rangelands ‣ Rangelands are large, undeveloped areas populated by grasses, grasslike plants and scrub. Rangelands are usually semi-arid to arid and include grasslands, tundra, scrublands, coastal scrub, alpine areas, and savanna. Rangelands cover about 50% of the Earth s land surface. Rangelands are often used for grazing livestock, but because they often occur in low rainfall areas they do not regenerate quickly.
USDA
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Managing Rangelands ‣ Grasses grow continuously from a meristem close to the ground, so the leaf can be cropped without causing growth to stop.
Productivity
Overgrazing occurs when too many animals are grazed for too long on an area and there is not enough time for regrowth between cropping.
Undergrazing Net productivity is reduced because standing dead material leaves little room for new growth to come through.
Optimum grazing Old material is removed so new growth can come through, but enough growing material is left to allow recovery.
Overgrazing Too much material is removed and new growth can not become established. Plants die and erosion occurs.
Grazing Rangelands Effect of grazing on plant species composition
‣ Intensive grazing causes changes
Ungrazed
in rangeland species composition.
Moderate grazing
Species that perform better under grazing will increase their range (increasers).
Overgrazed
Overgrazing opens up gaps in plant distribution, allowing invasive species to establish.
Decreasers
Increasers
Invaders
USDA
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Stock Rotation ‣ Rotating stock through rangelands can prevent overgrazing. Rotating livestock between different parts of the range gives ungrazed areas a chance to regrow.
Rangelands are ecologically important areas. They need to be managed carefully to maintain their biodiversity.
Rotating stock helps to prevent animal parasites, such as ticks, from establishing.
Reducing grazing times and rotating through three areas over a three year cycle can leave each area ungrazed for a total of two years in every full cycle.
Area 1
Area 2
Area 3
Grazed first half
Grazed second half
Ungrazed
Second year
Grazed second half
Ungrazed
Grazed first half
Third year
Ungrazed
Grazed first half
Grazed second half
First year
Managing Grasslands 1 ‣ Natural grasslands are diverse and productive ecosystems, but currently cultivated grasslands may contain as few as three species.
‣ In order to conserve grassland ecosystems, management practices that promote grassland species diversity must be implemented, even though many of these practices may conflict with modern farming methods.
If grassland is not grazed, it will quickly turn to scrub and woodland
The use of fertilizers reduces species diversity. Keeping soil fertility low allows desirable grassland species to better compete with the more aggressive grasses.
Moderate grazing allows slower growing species to compete with the grasses
The practice of plowing fields and reseeding grass monocultures should be avoided
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Managing Grasslands 2 ‣ The increase in urban sprawl and the pressure on farmers to increase the productivity of their land and are having a detrimental effect on the once common flowering plants of Britain s grasslands. Conservation of grasslands is not only important for maintaining plant diversity. Many birds, reptiles, invertebrates, and mammals also rely on these ecosystems for food and shelter.
Grouse
Daisies
Parks & Refuges in the USA 1 ‣ Some 83 million acres (11% of public lands) of the USA are in
National Parks and Preserves, which protect natural resources, while allowing restricted activities.
‣ National wildlife refuges form a network across the USA, with at least one in every state. They provide habitat for endangered species, migratory birds, and big game. National Parks
Wildlife refuges
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Parks & Refuges in the USA 2 ‣ Alaska contains more than half the total acreage of the park
system. It is rich in diversity and shelters a wealth of wildlife.
‣ Hawaii s federal domain Haleakala National Park is known for its immense crater and rare plants, including the endemic silversword. Hawaii Volcanoes National Park has two of the world s most active volcanoes.
Alaska
Hawaiian Islands National Parks Akaka Falls, Hawaii
Wildlife refuges
Gray Wolf Conservation ‣ Gray wolf once occupied most of North
America and Europe but its range has been severely restricted by the activities of humans.
‣ Wolf reintroductions to Yellowstone
National Park began in 1995 amid much controversy. There are now around 330 wolves in Yellowstone. A total population of about 1,000 is now estimated to live within the Northern Rocky Mountains area.
‣ Reintroduction has been successful in terms of numbers, but it has led to problems of livestock predation.
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Whooping Crane Conservation ‣ Whooping crane once occupied most of midwestern North America but habitat loss has caused numbers to become extremely low.
‣ By 1941, just 21 birds remained. ‣ Recovery efforts have been relatively successful with the population rising to around 500.
‣ Biologists working with the cranes had
Photo: Tim Ross
to overcome problems associated with migration and inappropriate imprinting.
Whooping cranes being led by microlight, 2009.
Parks & Reserves in Canada ‣ Canada s National Parks are a country-wide system of representative natural areas of Canadian significance.
‣ They are protected, by law,
National Parks
for public understanding, appreciation, and enjoyment, while being maintained for future generations.
‣ National parks have
existed in Canada for well over a century.
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Peary Caribou Conservation ‣ Peary caribou are the smallest species of caribou. ‣ Their range covers the High Arctic islands in Canada s Northwest and
Nunavut
territories.
‣ The population has declined from over 40,000 in 1961 to just over 1,000 in 2005. Severe winters and climate changes affecting food supply are thought to have brought about the collapse in population. Conservation efforts focus on monitoring herd sizes and calf survival. Local Inuit communities are also being included in recovery plans, and have restricted hunting.
Photo: L. David Mech
UK National Parks ‣ England and Wales have a
number of National Parks of varying size. Correspondingly, Scotland has Regional Parks and Northern Ireland has Areas of Outstanding Beauty.
‣ Legislation permits some
forestry, farming, and quarrying within these parks.
‣ Environmentally Sensitive
Areas (ESAs) are areas whose environmental significance is a result of particular (now restricted) farming practices.
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Conservation in NZ ‣ New Zealand is a special case in conservation due to its large numbers of threatened species.
‣ DoC, the Department of
Conservation, is charged with the management of NZ s plants and animals and regularly updates the NZ Threat Classification System lists of plants and animals.
Nelson Lakes National Park
‣ Of the 5,819 plants and animals on the list, half are listed as threatened or endangered.
Milford Sound, Fiordland National Park
NZ National Parks ‣ DoC plays a pivotal role in the management of New Zealand s native ecosystems, administering all fourteen National Parks and developing recovery plans for New Zealand s threatened species.
‣ About a third of New Zealand is protected in parks and reserves.
National Parks
Great spotted kiwi Mount Cook NP
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Endangered Wildlife ‣ Around 800 years ago,
New Zealand became the last large landmass to be inhabited by humans.
Archey s frog: one of the world s most endangered amphibians
‣ Since that time, nearly half of its native birds have become extinct.
119 kakapo left
‣ A further 60 are rare or
critically endangered, one of the highest rates in the world.
Kiwi numbers declining rapidly
250 Black robin left Saddlebacks found only on offshore islands
All images: DoC
Parks & Reserves in Australia ‣ The Australian Government manages Commonwealth parks and
reserves including areas located on external island territories and within Australian waters. Each Australian State and Territory Government also has their own protected area management agencies. Kakadu NP, Uluru-Kata Tjuta NP, and Booderee NP are managed jointly with their traditional Aboriginal owners.
Nature Conservation Reserve (Coastal Park, Conservation Reserve, National Parks etc.)
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Cities ‣ Cities are urban centers of population and commerce. The population that defines a city varies from country to country but is commonly in the tens of thousands.
CA
The different histories and geographies of cities results in many variations in city layout.
New York, New York, USA
In many cities, the growth and expansion of the city and surrounding urban areas is controlled by planning and building regulations.
CA
Many modern city designs incorporate many different activities (e.g. accommodation, recreation, shopping, light industry, etc) into the same area to reduce travel times and encourage continued use of all areas of the city throughout morning, day, and evening.
Urban Vitalization ‣ There has always been a need to
balance the functionality of a city with its aesthetic appeal. Urban development in the mid 20th century focused on cheap, uniform, high rise apartment blocks. These had little aesthetic appeal and in many cases led to high crime rates and a decline in local living standards.
All photos CA
By opening up these areas and integrating recreational and social areas, cities can be developed into vibrant and productive places.
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Urban Decay ‣ Urban decay is a process where a once-functioning city or suburb falls into disrepair.
Lankiveil
It is commonly followed by or characterized by high crime rates, unemployment, social disregard, abandoned buildings, and unappealing landscapes. Although there is no single reason for urban , causes include a downturn in socio-economic conditions, poor urban planning, decline in real estate values, or the construction of roads bypassing the area.
Phillies1fan777
Sustainable Cities 1
Greenways are walkways or bicycle lanes connecting various places. They separate pedestrians from traffic and provide quick pedestrian access to different parts of the city. Greenways also provide habitats for wildlife. Disused replanted service lanes and railways can serve as part of these links.
2 Photo:Beyond My Ken CC 3.0
Farms may no longer be able to supply the food requirements of an increasing population. High-rise buildings may be converted into greenhouses or into indoor livestock raising areas. CA
1
3
2
3
CA
Green belts and green spaces are an important part of city development. They provide habitat for wildlife and recreational areas for people. Areas of undeveloped land act as barriers to urban sprawl.
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Sustainable Cities 4
Rooftop gardens are becoming common in many cities. They contribute to the city s food supply and also help to regulate a building s temperature.
5
High-speed rail linking all parts of the city provides cost effective and convenient transport. It also reduces congestion and smog.
4
iStock
6
7 5
New suburbs and housing are being designed in clusters that fit into the natural landscape. Cluster housing leaves areas for the original plants and animals to remain. The design also reduces noise pollution from traffic.
6
CA
Solar panels are already used to power street lights, signs, and transport information systems. Mandatory use of solar energy in new buildings will supplement heating and electricity needs.
7
Transport ‣ Efficient movement in, around, and between cities is often limited by the geography, design, and planning of the transport system.
US Dept Transport
Wildlife crossings allow animals to move from one side of a busy road system to the other without having to cross it directly. This reduces the number of the animalrelated accidents and animal deaths.
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Transport ‣ Efficient movement in, around, and between cities is often limited by the geography, design, and planning of the transport system.
Photo Jim.henderson
Cycle lanes give plenty of room for cyclists. Greenways and cycle links can be used to connect most parts of a city or community.
Transport ‣ Efficient movement in, around, and between cities is often limited by the geography, design, and planning of the transport system.
RA
Electric and hybrid vehicles reduce fuel use and emissions, especially in private vehicles. Charging facilities provided in key areas (e.g. LAX above) allow users to charge up while away from their vehicle.
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Transport ‣ Efficient movement in, around, and between cities is often limited by the geography, design, and planning of the transport system.
CA
Buses powered by natural gas, electricity, or renewable fuels provide transport for large numbers of people. This reduces fuel consumption and carbon emissions per person.
Transport ‣ Efficient movement in, around, and between cities is often limited by the geography, design, and planning of the transport system.
Photo:Brucke-Osteuropa
High speed rail reduces the need for private vehicles by providing freight and passenger links between cities and connecting with local transport networks.
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Transport ‣ Efficient movement in, around, and between cities is often limited by the geography, design, and planning of the transport system.
CA
Interchanges allow traffic to change direction without having to stop. Their use increases traffic flow and decreases fuel consumption associated with the stop/go nature of congested traffic and traffic light systems.
Environmental Remediation ‣ As useable land becomes more scarce there is an increasing incentive to redevelop land previously used for other purposes. Before most former industrial land can be redeveloped it must undergo environmental remediation. This requires the removal of contaminants in order to make the area safe for human health.
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Dealing With Contaminated Soil ‣ Contaminated sites in the US are classified as Brownfields or Superfund sites. Brownfields are industrial, urban, or commercial parcels of land than can be used again after remediation.
Superfund sites fall under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA).
DV
Superfund sites are highly toxic, abandoned sites that the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has identified for extensive remediation.
The The A.L. Taylor site (the Valley of the Drums) is a 23 acre site in Bullitt County, Kentucky. Over a 10 year period during the 1960s-1970s, thousands of drums of toxic waste were held there. Toxic chemicals included: methylene chloride, acetone, phthalates, anthracene, toluene, fluoranthene, alkyl benzene, vinyl chloride, and dichloroethylene. The accumulation of the barrels on the site were in part responsible for CERCLA. During an inspection in 1979, half of more than 17,000 drums were found to have leaked. The site was cleaned up in 1983, but recent inspections found more waste that still requires removal.
Tragedy of the Commons ‣ The Tragedy of the Commons is an essay written in 1968 dealing with the management of a common resource. Because the resource is not owned by any particular person it is in the best interests of the individual to use it as much as possible.
In Garret Hardin s original essay, the commons is an area where farmers may graze their cattle.
It is in each individual s immediate interest to graze as many cattle as possible, even though it is against the long term common good to do so.
In this way their benefit is maximized while the damage is shared by others. The result of overgrazing is the ruin of the grassland. Hardin used this story as a metaphor for better management of global common resources such as fisheries and forestry. Photos: COR
The result however, is the eventual destruction of the commons.
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Effects of Globalization ‣ Globalization refers to the transforming of local or regional markets or societies to global ones.
‣ The process involves the world wide spread of trade, migration, technology, and ideas.
‣ Effects are varied but some advantages are: greater access to new ways of thinking access to global markets to sell/manufacture products multiculturalism and access to new societies
‣ Disadvantages include: the loss of regional/cultural beliefs and ways of life global financial disasters exploitation of workers in developing countries
The World Bank ‣ The World Bank was originally designed to help rebuild Europe s economies after the second world war.
‣ Its current goals include the financing of economic and infrastructure polices of developing countries. It has around 160 member countries.
‣ The bank offers low interest loans to approved developing countries.
‣ Although its goals include combating poverty, some critics claim it has had the opposite effect by financing policies that favor the interests of member countries rather than countries in need.
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Marine Water ‣ Oceans and seas have been
fished for centuries, providing a vital food source and income for many people.
‣ Today oceans are used in
many ways from fish farming to mineral production. Now, this once seemingly infinite resource is beginning to show signs of reaching its limits.
Marine Water Use ‣ Water from marine sources (seawater) is used mainly by the fishing industry. Seafood
Seawater is used preferentially during seafood processing because its osmolarity is the same as the fish, keeping the fish fresh and stopping osmotic shock. Seawater is also used to clean fish processing factories, as it is readily available.
Salt production
‣ Most of the world s salt supplies come from evaporated seawater.
‣ The use of seawater is not feasible in most industries because it causes rapid corrosion.
Seafood processing
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Managing Fisheries ‣ The key features in fisheries management include: Developing an understanding of the resource before harvesting. A commitment to ongoing research into the biology of the fished species. Developing the safeguards necessary for sustainability.
NIWA
Consideration of human needs and demands.
Surveying oyster beds, Fouveaux Strait, New Zealand
Shark tagging
Stock Indicators
‣ Stocks of commercially fished species must be managed to ensure that the catch does not undermine sustainability of the fishery.
‣ This requires attention to stock indicators, e.g. catch per unit of
fishing effort, stock recruitment rates, population age structure, and spawning biomass. Some definitions are important: Stock: The part of population from which catches are taken in a fishery. Stock recruitment: The entry of juvenile fish into the fish stock. Total Allowable Catch: The catch that can be legally taken from the stock. Stock collapse: Population level at which the fish stock cannot recover.
Measuring fish size as an indicator of age. Fish below size must be released.
Scallop measurer. Legal sized scallops must not pass through the rectangle.
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Sustainable Yields ‣ Sustainable yields apply to all harvests that require some organisms to be left after harvesting to replenish the stock.
‣ Yields above the sustainable limit will eventually cause the depletion of the stock. Fisheries especially need to use sustainable yields (SY).
SY =
Total biomass Energy
at time t + 1 -
Population replenished by time of next harvest
Total biomass at time t Energy
= (annual growth and recruitment) - (annual death and emigration)
Yield
Population growth Population at 1/2 K (carrying capacity)
Maximum Sustainable Yield ‣ The Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) is the maximum number from the population that can be harvested but still allow the population to recover to pre-harvest levels. Unlike the Maximum Economic Yield (MEY) and the Optimal Sustainable Yield (OSY) it does not take into account cost of harvesting, revenues gained from sales, or possible drops in growth rate in some years.
H3 dN = rN dt
1-N K
H2
-H
Where: dN = change in population dt = change in time N = population number K = carrying capacity H = harvest rate
At harvest rate H1 the population can be maintained at low or high numbers. At H2 the MSY is reached. At H3 the MSY is exceeded and the population will eventually crash.
H1 Population growth rate
At MSY:
N1 Population size (N)
NMSY
N2 K
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Overfishing ‣ Fishing is an ancient human
tradition that is now a worldwide resource extraction industry.
‣ Several decades of overfishing in all of the world s oceans has pushed commercially important species, e.g. cod, into steep declines from which recovery is unlikely.
Fishing fleet
The maximum sustainable yield (MSY) has been exceeded by too many vessels catching too many fish, often using wasteful and destructive methods.
Fish market, Norway
Overfishing ‣ The build up of large scale fishing fleets has contributed to widespread overfishing and damage to the marine environment.
Bottom trawls and dredges cause large scale physical damage to the sea floor. Sea mounts are particularly vulnerable. Lost fishing gear (particularly drift nets) threatens marine life, including birds and mammals.
Drift net Purse seine
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Fish Farming
‣ Fish farming, once thought to be the solution to the world s over-
fishing problems, actually accelerates the decline of wild fish stocks. Many farmed fish are fed meal made from wild fish, but it takes about one kilo of wild fish to grow 300 g of farmed fish.
‣ Some forms of fish farming destroy natural fish habitat and produce large scale effluent flows.
Salmon farming, Iceland
The Grand Banks La br ad or
‣ The Grand Banks of Newfoundland Cu rr
en t
CANADA Newfoundland Grand Banks
St
re
am
ot ia Sc
The plateaux range from 36 m to 185 m deep. The shape of the deep sea-floor causes nutrient rich water to well up to the surface and the relatively shallow plateaux allow a huge range of fishes to proliferate.
‣ The Grand Banks have been fished
Gu lf
No va
consists of a series of underwater plateaux at the edge of the North American continental shelf.
since the fifteenth century but continual over fishing has devastated many fish stocks.
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North Sea Cod Fishery 1
‣ The stock of North Sea cod (Gadus morhua) is one of the world s six
large populations of this economically important species. As one of the most intensively monitored and exploited fish stocks in the North Sea, it is considered a highly relevant indicator of how well sustainable fisheries policies are operating.
‣ The stock of North Sea cod is presently below safe biological limits and stocks are being depleted in all waters adjacent to the North Sea, where the species is distributed.
Graph shows total international landings of North Sea cod. The decline in the take reflects the poor state of the stock.
State of the Cod Fishery ‣ The graph shows that recruitment has generally been poor since 1987, and the number of spawning adults has fallen to levels below those required to recruit new individuals into the stock.
Recruitment and Spawning Stock Biomass of North Sea Cod
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Cod Recovery Plan ‣ ICES (the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea) advised that the spawning stock biomass (an indicator of the number of breeding adults) reached a new historic low in 2001, and that the risk of stock collapse is high.
‣ ICES have recommended a recovery plan that will ensure recovery of the spawning stock to a level of more than 150,000 tonnes. Reductions in the TAC alone (it has been set at approximately half that set for the year 2000) are insufficient to stop the declines.
The Anchovy Fishery ‣ The Peruvian anchovy fishery collapsed in
1972 due to a combination of environmental changes (El Niño) and prolonged overfishing. The industry has never fully recovered.
Estimated maximum sustainable yield
Graph shows the annual catch of the Peruvian anchovy fishery, 1960-1990
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Anchovy Fishery Recovery ‣ During the 1990s the anchovy fishery began to recover but was hit by El Niño conditions again in 1997.
‣ Restriction of the fishery for the following year allowed the rapid recovery of anchovy numbers.
‣ A large number of regulations have been placed on the industry. Catches continue to be variable and will probably never fully recover to pre-fishing levels. El Niño El Niño conditions conditions
Estimated maximum sustainable yield
Restriction of fishery
Recovery catch numbers from 1990 to 2005
North Sea Herring ‣ The North Sea herring (Clupea harengus) stocks collapsed during the late 1970s which caused a four year closure of the industry. Stocks decreased again during the 1990s due to a high juvenile catch.
‣ A recovery plan was implemented in 1997 with some success.
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Gemfish Fishery ‣ The decline of gemfish (Rexia solandri) in southern Australian waters represents a classic case of fisheries over-exploitation.
The TAC was set at zero in 1993, but there is still considerable bycatch; the fishery has not recovered and may never do so. The records for the period prior to 1993, when commercial fishing ceased, show a decade of general decline in the gemfish stock.
Graph shows the commercial gemfish catch, 1970-1993
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