CHAPTER 18 NOMADIC EMPIRES AND EURASIAN INTEG
TION
INTRODUCTION Nomadic herders popUlated the steppes of Asia for centuries during the classic 1 and postclassical eras and periodically came into contact and conflict with the established states nd empires of the Eurasian landmass. It was not until the eleventh century, however, that the no~adic peoples like the Turks and Mongols began to raid, conquer, rule, and trade with the urban-based cultures in a systematic and far-reaching manner. While these resourceful and warlike noma~s often left a path of destruction in their wake, they also built vast transregional empires that laid he foundations for the increasing communication and exchange that would characterize the period from 1000 to 1500 in the eastern hemisphere. The success of these nomadic empires in this e a can be attributed to • Their unmatched skill on horseback. When organized on a large scale t ese nomads were practically indomitable in warfare. Outstanding cavalry forces, skilled rchers, and well coordinated military strategy gave these peoples an advantage that was difficult for even the most powerful states to counter. • Their ability to integrate vast territories through secure trade routes, ex eptional courier networks, diplomatic missions, missionary efforts, and resettlement pr grams. In spite of these successes and the enormous influence of these nomadic people, their leaders were, in general, better at warfare than administration. With the exception of th later Ottoman empire, most of these states were relatively short-lived, brought down by both' ternal and external pressures.
I. Turkish migrations and imperial expansion A. Nomadic economy and society
1. Turkish peoples were nomadic herders; organized into clans with rtflated languages I
2. Central Asia's steppes: good for grazing, little rain, few rivers 3. Nomads and their animals; few settlements a} Nomads drove their herds in migratory cycles b) Lived mostly on animal products c) Also produced limited amounts of millet, pottery, leather good, iron 4. Nomads and settled peoples sought trade, were prominent on carav n routes 5. Fluidity of classes in nomadic society a) Two social classes: nobles and commoners b} Autonomous clans and tribes
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6. Religions: shamans, Buddhism, Nestorian Christianity; by tenth
Clntury, Islam i
7. Military organization a) Khan ("ruler") organized vast confederation of individual tribes for expansion b) Outstanding cavalry forces, formidable military power B. Turkish empires in Persia, Anatolia, and India
I.
Saljuq Turks and the Abbasid empire a) Lived on borders of the Abbasid realm, mid-eighth to mid_ten~.h centuries b) Moved farther in and served in Abbasid armies thereafter c) Overshadowed the Abbasid caliphs by the mid-eleventh centu d) Extended Turkish rule to Syria, Palestine, and other parts of t~e realm
2. Saljuq Turks and the Byzantine empire
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a) Migrated in large numbers to Anatolia, early eleventh century b) Defeated Byzantine army at Manzikert in 1071 c) Transformed Anatolia into an Islamic society 3. Ghaznavid Turks dominated northern India through sultanate of Dr1hi
II. The Mongol empires A. Chinggis Khan aad the making of the Mongol empire
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1. ChinggisKhan Cluniversal ruler") unified Mongol tribes through a liance and
conquests 2. Mongol politicaborganization
a) Organized new mililary units and broke up tribal affiliati.ons b) Ch.os{thigh .officials based on talent and loyalty c) Established capital at Karakorum 3. Mongol strategy:. horsemanship, archers, mobility, psychological
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4. Mongol conquest of northern China
a) Chinggis Khan, Mongols raided the Jurchen in north China beg~nning in 1211 b) Controlled north China by 1220
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c) South China was still ruled by the Song dynasty 5. Mongol conquest ofPersia a) Chinggis Khan tried to open trade and dipl.omatic relations with Saljuq leader Khwarazm shah, the ruler of Persia, 1218 b) Upon being rejected, Chinggis Khan led force to pursue the KhWarazm c) Mongol forces destr.oyed Persian cities and qanat d) Chinggis died in 1227, laid foundation for a mighty empire
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B. The Mongol empires after Chinggis Khan I.
Division of the Mongol empires: heirs divide into four regional empir s
2. Khubilai Khan a)
Chinggis Khan's grandson, consolidated Mongol rule in China
b) Promoted Buddhism, supported Daoists, Muslims, and Christians 3. Conquest of southern China
a) Khubilai extended Mongol rule to all of China
b) Song capital at Hangzhou fell in 1276, Yuan dynasty founded in 279 c) Unsuccessful conquests of Vietnam, Burma, Java, and Japan 4. The Golden Horde a) Group of Mongols overran Russia between 1237 and 1241 b) Further overran Poland, Hungary, and eastern Germany, 1241-12: 2 c) Maintained hegemony in Russia until the mid-fifteenth century
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5.
The ilkhanate of Persia: Khubilai's brother, Hiilegii, captured Baghda in 1258
6.
Mongol rule in Persia a) Persians served as ministers, governors, and local officials b) Mongols cared only about taxes and order c) Illman Ghazan converted to Islam, 1295; massacres of Christians and Jews I
followed 7. Mongol rule in China a)
Outlawed intermarriage between Mongols and Chinese
b) Forbade Chinese from learning the Mongol language c) Brought foreign administrators into China and put them in charge d) Dismissed Confucian scholars; dismantled civil service examinat~on e) Tolerated all cultural and religious traditions in China
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8. Mongol ruling elite became enchanted with the Lamaist Buddhism 0lTibet C. The Mongols and Eurasian integration 1. The Mongols and trade
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a) Mongols worked to secure trade routes and ensure safety ofmercrants b) Elaborate courier network with relay stations
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c) Maintained good order for traveling merchants, ambassadors, anl· missionaries 2. Diplomatic missions a) The four Mongol empires maintained close diplomatic communi ations b) Established diplomatic relations with Korea, Vietnam, India,
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3. Resettlement a) Mongols needed skilled artisans and educated individuals frmm other places b) Often resettled them in different locations to provide services c) Uighur Turks served as clerks, secretaries, and administrato s d) Arab and Persian Muslims also served Mongols far from th r homelands e) Skilled artisans were often sent to Karakorum; became pe
ent residents
D. Decline of the Mongols in Persia and China I. Collapse of the ilkhanate a) In Persia, excessive spending and overexploitation led to re
ced revenues
b) Failure of the ilkhan's paper money c) Factional struggle plagued the Mongol leadership d) The last ruler died without an heir; the ilkhanate collapsed 2. Decline of the Yuan dynasty a) Paper money issued by the Mongol rulers lost value b) Power struggles, assassinations, and civil war weakened Mo gols after 1320s 3. Bubonic plague in southwest China in 1330s, spread through Asi and Europe a) Depopulation and labor shortage undermined the Mongol re ime b) By 1368, the Chinese drove the Mongols back to the steppes 4. Surviving Mongol khanates
a) The khanate ofChaghatai continued in central Asia
b) The Golden Horde survived until the mid-sixteenth century
III. After the Mongols A. Tamerlane the Whirlwind (1336-1404) built central Asian empire
1. The lame conqueror, Timur was self-made; rose to power in 136ds; established capital in Samarkand 2. Tamerlane's conquests
a) First conquered Persia and Afghanistan
b) Next attacked the Golden Horde
c) At the end of the fourteenth century, invaded northern India
d) Ruled the empire through tribal leaders who relied on existin bureaucrats to collect taxes 3. Tamerlane's heirs struggled and divided empire into four regions B. The foundation of the Ottoman empire
1. Osman
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a) Large numbers of nomadic Turks migrated to Persia and Anatplia b) Osman, a charismatic leader, carved out a small state in north~est Anatolia c) Claimed independence from the Saljuq sultan in 1299 2. Ottoman conquests in the Balkans in 1350s a) Sultan Mehmed II sacked Constantinople in 1453, renamed it Istanbul I b) Absorbed the remainder of the Byzantine empire
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c) During the sixteenth century, extended to southwest Asia, souteast Europe, and north Africa
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IDENTIFICATION: PEOPLE I
What is the contribution of each of the following individuals to world history? I?entification should include answers to the questions who, what, where, when, how, and why is this person important? I TughrilBeg Mahmud of Ghazni Chinggis Khan (Temiijin)* Marco Polo Khubilai Khan Hiilegii Tamerlane (Timur the Lame)* Osman Sultan Mehmed II
IDENTIFICATION :~IERMS/CONCEPTS State in your own words what each of the following terms means and why it is sighificant to a I study of world history. (Terms with an asterisk are defined in the glossary.) Turks Yurts *
Kumiss Shamans*
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Khan Saljuq Turks* Sultan Manzikert Karakorum Khanbaliq Chaghatai Golden Horde Yuan Dynasty* Ilkhanate ofPersia* Lamaist Buddhism Uighur Turks Bubonic plague Ottoman Turks Istanbul
STUDY QUESTIONS 1. What does the story of Guillaume Boucher represent? How does it fit in with Mongol strategies for Eurasian integration? 2. How did the geography of central Asia affect the development of the n adic cultures? How did these people adapt to their environment? What advantages did their daptations give them?
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3. Discuss the military organization, techniques, and strategies of these A~ian nomads. How did I these abilities make their military so formidable? 4. How did the Mongols come to conquer China? What were the key elements in their success?
MOngOlleade~s
5. What does the book mean when it states that most of the were better conquerors than administrators? How was this evident in the various Mongol states? Were I there exceptions to that rule? I
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MATCInNG Match these figures wi1h the statements that follow. A. B. C. D.
Chabi Mabmud of Gbazoi Tamerlane Marco Polo
E. Chinggis Khan F. Tughril Beg G. Osman H. Khubilai Khan
l._ _Saljuq leader recognized by caliph ofAbbasid empire as sultan.
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yuan! dynasty.
2. _
Venetian merchant who served in administrative position during
3.
Reorganized army and began conqu~ ofChina aDd Persia.
4.
Favorite wife ofMongol emperor; she was a Nestorian Christian.
5.
Spent most ofhls adult life in conquest; sacked the city ofDelhi
6.
Charismatic leader who carved out a state in Anatolia and founded otman empire.
7.
Founder of Yuan dynasty and ruler of China.
8.
He led the Turks ofMgbanistan on raids ofnorthern India.
SEQUENCING Place the following cluster ofevents in chronological order. Consider carefully ~ow one event leads to another, and try to determine the internal logic ofthe sequence. I Song capital in southern China falls to the Mongol conquerors.
Mongol emperor defeats the shah ofPersia and destroys the conquered l~d.
Temujin is born into a noble family on the steppes.
Khubilai Khan dies.
Mongol ruler begins conquest of China by invading the lutchen realm..
Grandson of Chinggis is named great khan of China.
CONNECTIONS i
In fifty words or less explain the relationshi between a '.I lead to or foster the other? Be specific in YOP e (CMhofthe follo~~g ,Pa.u:'S. How does one groups.) ur response. ay be done mdlVlduapy or in small
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Horses and yurts Golden Horde and Khubilai Khan B~bonic plague and Yuan dynasty UIghur Turks and Guillaume Boucher TamerIane and Ottomans
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